Excavation photo of the Hun-period “eastern-type” burial from Budapest, Népfürdő Street (Hungary). Credit: © Boglárka Mészáros, BHM Aquincum Museum.

New research has uncovered far-reaching genetic ties between the Mongolian steppe and Central Europe under Hun rule.

The Huns suddenly appeared in Europe in the 370s, establishing one of the most influential although short-lived empires in Europe.

Scholars have long debated whether the Huns were descended from the Xiongnu. In fact, the Xiongnu Empire dissolved around 100 CE, leaving a 300-year gap before the Huns appeared in Europe.

Can DNA lineages that bridge these three centuries be found?

To address this question, researchers analysed the DNA of 370 individuals that lived in historical periods spanning around 800 years, from 2nd Century BCE to 6th Century CE, encompassing sites in the Mongolian steppe, Central Asia, and the Carpathian Basin of Central Europe.

In particular, they examined 35 newly sequenced genomes ranging from: a 3rd-4th century site in Kazakhstan and 5th-6th century contexts in the Carpathian Basin, including exceptional Hun-period burials that exhibit Eastern or ‘steppe’ traits often linked to nomadic traditions (ie ‘eastern-type’ burials).

The study was carried out as part of the ERC Synergy Grant project HistoGenes by a multidisciplinary research team of geneticists, archaeologists and historians, including researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.

The results showed that there was not a large Asian- or steppe-descended community living in the Carpathian Basin after the Huns’ arrival.

However, they identified a small but distinct set of individuals – often belonging to the ‘eastern-type’ burials – who did carry significant East Asian genetic signatures.

Advanced comparisons of genealogical connections (the analysis of shared DNA segments known as identical-by-descent, or IBD) led to a remarkable discovery.

Co-first author Guido Alberto Gnecchi-Ruscone of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology said: “It came as a surprise to discover that few of these Hun-period individuals in Europe share IBD links with some of the highest-ranking imperial elite individuals from the late Xiongnu Empire.”

These connections also include an individual from the largest terrace tomb ever discovered in a Xiongnu context.

Gold animal figurine found in Árpás (Hungary), in a 5th century eastern-type burial. Credit: © Rómer Flóris, Museum of Art and History.

Connections across the steppe and mixed legacy

This link suggests that some among the Huns in Europe could trace their lineage back to important late Xiongnu burials from the Mongolian steppe.

Yet the archaeogenomic picture for most Hun and post-Hun period individuals in the Carpathian Basin is far more varied.

Co-first author Zsófia Rácz of the Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, Hungary, said: “DNA and archaeological evidence reveal a patchwork of ancestries, pointing to a complex process of mobility and interaction rather than a mass migration.”

While these connections confirm the presence of some direct descendants of Xiongnu elites, the study also shows that the population of the Hun empire in Europe was genetically highly heterogeneous.

Another key conclusion of the study is that the 5th century ‘eastern-type’ burials from Central Europe are highly diverse in both their cultural and genetic heritage.

The findings also underscore that the Huns’ arrival in Europe contrasts with that of the Avars two centuries later.

Co-corresponding author Walter Pohl of the Austrian Academy of Sciences added: “The Avars came directly to Europe after their East-Asian empire had been destroyed by the Turks, and many of their descendants still carried considerable East Asian ancestry until the end of their rule in c. 800.

“The ancestors of Attila’s Huns took many generations on their way westward and mixed with populations across Eurasia.”

Implications for European history

This research illuminates how past societies in the Carpathian Basin adapted and changed in response to new arrivals.

Co-corresponding author Zuzana Hofmanová of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology said: “Although the Huns dramatically reshaped the political landscape, their actual genetic footprint – outside of certain elite burials – remains limited.”

Instead, the population as a whole appears to be predominantly of European origin and have continued local traditions, with some newly arrived steppe influences woven in.

Co-corresponding author Johannes Krause, director of the Department of Archaeogenetics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, said: “From a broader perspective, the study underscores how cutting-edge genetic research, in combination with careful exploration of  the archaeological and historical context, can resolve centuries-old debates about the composition and origin of past populations.”

While many questions remain, this work offers compelling evidence for direct connections between the Hun period population, the steppe and the Xiongnu Empire, deepening our understanding of the dynamic networks that linked East and West Eurasia in the past.

The study is published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.